wasteguide | waste - management & history

Chemicals are generally perceived as artificial substances with the potential to damage the environment and human health. The majority of known substances, however, do not have significant adverse effects (Birkin and Price 1989) though ongoing research highlights scientific uncertainties and the need for risk assessment in this field (DETR 1998). It is essential to have an effective programme of sustainable waste management for industrial and domestic chemical waste while making every effort to minimise its production.

'Chemicals' is a broad term encompassing different substances and preparations with unique properties. Hazardous chemicals display certain characteristics. They may be inflammable, corrosive, or poisonous, with the potential to harm the environment if allowed to escape from controlled conditions. The twelve main classifications of hazardous chemicals are summarised in Table 1.

Table 1 Types of hazardous chemicals and their characteristics

CLASSIFICATION	CHARACTERISTICS	EXAMPLES
Combustible Liquid	Liquids with a flash point of between 60.5C and 93C that are not otherwise defined as hazardous	Ammonium sulphite Dimethylsulphoxide Pump oil
Corrosive	Materials indicating a pH below 7 (acid) or above 7 (alkaline)	Acids and Bases Corrosive solids Mercury
Dangerous When Wet	Materials liable to become spontaneously flammable or to give off flammable or toxic gas when wet	Lithium aluminium hydride Potassium ingot Sodium metal
Explosive	Substance, article or device designed to function by explosion, or one functioning as such through chemical reaction rather than design	Gunpowder
Flammable Gas	Material defined as a gas up to 20C and 14.7 psi of pressure; ignitable at 14.7 psi in a mixture of up to 13% by volume of air; or has a flammable range at 14.7 psi with air of at least 12% regardless of lower limit	Hydrogen
Flammable Liquid	Liquids having a flash point of maximum 60.5C	Solvents Alcohols
Flammable Solid	Three types: wetted explosives (suppressing explosive properties) self-reactive materials (thermally unstable with the potential to undergo a strongly exothermic decomposition with or without participation of oxygen) readily combustible solids (i.e. those which may cause a fire through friction; metal powders that can be ignited and react in 10 minutes or less, or show a burning rate faster than 2.2m per second)	Camphor Magnesium metal Red phosphorus
Non-flammable gas	Material or mixture which exerts in the packaging an absolute pressure of 41 psi at 20C (not defined as Flammable Gas or Poisonous Gas)	Argon
Oxidizer	Materials that may, generally by yielding oxygen, cause or enhance the combustion of other materials	Ammonium nitrate Potassium chlorate Potassium permanganate
Poison	Materials (other than gases) proven to be toxic to humans, and/or hazardous during transportation	Arsenic trioxide Mercury mixtures Phenol
Poisonous Gas	Materials defined as a gas at up to 19C and a pressure of 14.7 psi, proven or suspected to be toxic to humans, and/or hazardous during transportation	Chlorine Methylbromide
Spontaneously Combustible	Pyrophoric materials (ignitable within 5 minutes of air contact); self-heating materials (self-heat without an energy supply in air contact)	Activated charcoal

SOURCE: UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI - ROLLA 2000

The chemicals industry deals with petrochemicals, fibres and polymers, agrochemicals, pharmaceutical products, fine chemicals, catalysts, adhesives, waxes and pigments, and soaps and detergents (Biffa Waste Services 1994). Industry is the most obvious source of chemical waste with the potential to cause serious environmental damage.

The chemicals industry, in response to public sensitivity, leads UK industry in waste management innovation (Biffa Waste Services 1994). Philosophies such as 'product stewardship' and 'cradle to grave' have become essential marketing strategies for the majority of the sector. Figure 1 shows that 75% of all chemical companies questioned in a Biffa Waste survey took their liability seriously. This represents 26% more than any other sector.

Figure 2.3.1 Companies who believe that 'Take Back' liability has implications for their business

SOURCE: BIFFA WASTE SERVICES 1994

Industry is not the only source of chemical waste. Consumers include farmers using pesticides, gardeners using fertilisers, householders using cleaning products, and hospitals using medicinal products. The chemical industry is policed by strict regulations restricting the types and quantities of chemicals that can be discharged into the environment. Consumers are under no such restrictions and are responsible for high levels of contamination to water sources through domestic sewage outflows. Table 2 lists the domestic sewage contribution to pollution levels.

Table 2 Contaminants from domestic sewage as a percentage of the total contamination load

CHEMICAL	WASTE WATER TREATMENT TOTAL LOAD (%)
Trifluralin	96%
Permethrin	95%
Chloroform	94%
Malathion	93%
Zinc	82%
Copper	80%
Pentachlorophenol (PCP)	80%
Arsenic	62%
Mecoprop	56%
2-4D	56%
Chromium	20%
Lead	11%
Cadmium	11%

SOURCE: ROBERTS 1999

Consumers should be aware of how Trifluralin (a common constituent of weed killer) and other chemicals can reach waste water treatment works, and what can be done to manage this waste and to minimise risks to the environment.

The risks to human health and the environment are directly related to the degree of exposure to the chemicals and their inherent hazardous properties (DETR 1998; Table 1 above).

Health problems resulting from exposure to chemicals may include asthma, eczema, dermatitis, and in extreme cases, brain damage, mutations, birth defects and cancer.

Once chemicals have entered the environment they can be transported through air, water, food and soil. They may be temporarily or indefinitely immobilised in soil, sediments and ice.

Human exposure to chemicals may occur in residential, industrial, or occupational settings. By identifying the exposure pattern, it is possible to assess the potential health risk. The exposure pattern takes into consideration the intensity, duration, frequency and time pattern of the exposure.

The same problems apply to environmental risks. Interference with one small component of an ecosystem has the potential to create serious problems for the whole system. For example, a living organism exposed to a chemical substance may accumulate this substance in its bodily tissues, and pass it on through the food chain. Even small quantities of some chemicals, such as pesticides - at levels below one part per million - can kill fish and render water undrinkable (SEPA 2000).

Persistent chemical substances resistant to degradation have the potential to bioaccumulate or become widely distributed, reacting with, or degrading, other chemicals to form toxic substances. Most exposures to chemicals are to mixtures rather than individual chemicals. The effects of long-term, low-level exposure to persistent chemicals are difficult to quantify, as the consequences may not become apparent until long after their release. Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are an example of this type of chemical. Its persistence in the environment and particularly in food chains in the 1970s led to its withdrawal from industrial use.

Chemicals are released into the environment in different ways:

point source describes a discrete, identifiable location, from which substances are discharged directly into the environment (DoE 1994), and can be measured and controlled, e.g. a manufacturing plant, a power station or sewage works.
diffuse source emissions result from numerous and widely dispersed releases of substances to the environment, and as a result may be difficult to contain or control (DoE 1994). The indirect release of chemicals into the environment from transient emissions, such as evaporation, diffusion, and leaching, are also classed as 'diffuse sources'. A common type of diffuse source emission is an agricultural pesticide application. Farmers are using pesticides on arable crops to control weeds, pests and diseases. The Environment Agency (EA) is detecting low concentrations of a wide range of pesticides in many watercourses (EA 1999) through small spillages and misuse.
leaching, or run-off from land, may occur if the use of pesticides, fertilisers and organic manures is not managed. This can lead to pollution of groundwater sources and water courses and eutrophication, a process where nitrates from fertilisers and/ or phosphates from detergents are rapidly absorbed by tiny plants. The resultant overgrowth causes a loss of dissolved oxygen in the watercourse, thus destroying, or driving away the living organisms in that ecosystem.

The following types of chemicals are considered to represent a significant threat to both human and environmental health in the event of long term exposure. It is these types of chemicals that are being targeted by the UK's recent chemicals strategy:

EU risk assessments raise concerns about the long-term effects of BFR s, three of which are commercially available in the UK. BFR s have traditionally been used in electrical equipment to contain the spread of electrical fires (SEPA 2000).

These compounds are a by-product of both industrial and domestic combustion processes. Some dioxins and furans are persistent and bioaccumulate. In light of this, strict emission limits were placed on incinerators in 1996, where these chemicals are commonly formed, reducing emissions by around 90% (SEPA 2000).

The endocrine or hormone system regulates vital functions such as our reproduction, behaviour and immunity. Pesticides are one of a number of products that have been identified as containing endocrine-disrupting chemicals. Other such examples include wood preservatives, paints and plastics, such as flexible PVC and cling film.

Endocrine disruptors released into the environment are under regulatory control. The adequacy of these controls is the subject of ongoing research which seeks to establish if there are any causal links between endocrine disrupting substances, and health effects, e.g. breast cancer in women, and declining sperm counts and reproductive disorders in men (EA 1998).

There has been a long-standing policy in the UK of reducing the exposure of people and the environment to lead. Through substantial efforts by the UK government to reduce lead exposure levels, the lead concentrations in blood in the general UK population have declined. However, concerns remain over the more subtle effects caused by low level exposure (SEPA 2000).

Mercury has also been a long-standing concern for the UK government. It is persistent and bioaccumulative and the UK will minimise the amounts of mercury entering the environment wherever practicable (SEPA 2000).

The depletion of the stratospheric ozone layer is one of the most pressing global environmental problems. Ozone depletion has extended from the Arctic regions to include the UK and other European countries. Man-made ozone depleting chemicals (ODCs) released into the atmosphere have contributed to this process and some of the main protagonists are chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) (refrigerants and foam blowing agents), some solvents, halons (fire extinguishers) and methyl bromide (pesticide). Most ODC production has been phased out, but significant quantities are still in use. Ozone depletion increases the risks of skin cancers and cataracts due to excessive ultraviolet (UVB) exposure (see Types of Waste A-Z Listing: Ozone Depleting Chemicals).

Their use in most applications within the UK ceased around the mid 1970's. Significant amounts still remain in components of electrical equipment. PCB s are extremely persistent, are bioaccumulative and toxic materials, and so the EU has set a target date of 2010 for the disposal of remaining PCB s (SEPA 2000).

These include pesticides, industrial products and unintentionally produced by-products. These types of chemicals are of international concern due to their extreme persistence, bioaccumulation, toxicity and ability to be transported round the globe (SEPA 2000).

Concerns about PVC are related to the environment impact of its manufacture, disposal and use of additives not bound to the polymer. A UK life cycle assessment was commissioned by the former Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions (DETR) in 2000 to compare the environmental impact of PVC to a number of major alternatives, which will feed into proposals for future legislation to regulate its use (DETR 2001).

Risk assessments for the EU determined that SCCP s used in metal cutting fluids and leather processing equipment posed an unacceptable risk to the aquatic environment. The EU has now produced a series of measures in a draft report, based on UK recommendations (SEPA 2000).

The chemical industry is the UK's number one manufacturing export earner with sales reaching £30 billion in 1992. The industry represents 2% of the UK's Gross Domestic Product (GDP), and employs 300,000 people (Biffa Waste Services 1994).

On average, chemical companies spend more money than any other industry on waste disposal (over half spend more than £100,000 per annum). In 1992 the sector spent £1 billion on environmental protection (Biffa Waste Services 1994).

A Friends of the Earth Study (FOE) looking at the Environment Agency's official pollution data from the UK's biggest factories shows that two-thirds of all cancer-causing chemicals, released into the environment every year, come from factories in the most deprived communities in England. The North West is the most polluted region, with almost 8000 tonnes of cancer-causing chemicals released. London suffers least from factory pollution with only 20 tonnes released (FOE 2001).

The chemicals sector was one of the most prolific water polluting industries in England and Wales in 1999 according to the Environment Agency. Some 13% of industrial pollution came from the chemicals sector in 1999, up 6% from the year before (ENDS 2001).

In 2000, there were 12 companies engaged in solvent and chemical recovery. These companies range in size from small specialist firms employing less than 10 staff to medium-sized multi-site operations employing 100 or more personnel (Croner 2001).

Long-term monitoring of soils since the mid-1800s at semi-rural locations in the UK has identified increasing concentrations of certain persistent substances (DoE 1994). The accumulation of cadmium (Cd) at these sites is calculated to be between 0.7 and 1.9 mg/kg/year, equivalent to an increase of 1.9-5.4g Cd/hectare/year; the average net rates of increase of dioxins was calculated as 1.9 mg/hectare/year (DoE 1994).

In 1995, the National Rivers Authority (NRA) took 250,000 samples from 2,500 sites monitoring 160 pesticides in freshwaters, coastal waters and groundwaters. One of the key findings was that Environmental Quality Standards (EQSs) and Drinking Water Standards were not always being achieved and compliance failure was increasing. Figures showed that 7% of freshwater sites failed EQS s for at least one pesticide in 1995, compared with 3.8% in 1993, and 75 pesticides exceeded the permitted levels in drinking water in 1995 compared with 52 in 1992 (ENDS 1997).

The National Poisons Unit reported that 5,000 people in England and Wales suffered acute pesticide poisoning in 1986. Garden or home incidents prompted approximately 70% of enquiries about agrochemicals to the Unit.

Although there is a large body of EU and national legislation affecting chemicals used in the workplace (covering health and safety, chemical accidents, transportation of chemicals, waste disposal and environmental pollution control), this section will focus on legislation that controls chemicals in the environment.

An internet-based, Government initiative is to be set up to help small companies affected by this large body of chemicals legislation. The service will help to bring together advice on legislation in areas of health, safety and environmental risks from chemicals in the work place. The Health and Safety Executive (HSE) and the Environment Agency (EA) are collaborating on the development of this service, which is expected to take three years (HSE 2001).

In order to deter manufacturers from developing harmful chemicals, two separate regimes operate under EU legislation. These distinguish between chemical substances on the market before and after September 1981. Substances on the EU market prior to September 1981 are classed as 'existing' chemicals under the Existing Substances Regulations (SI 1993/793), and any chemicals arriving after September 1981 are classed as 'new' under a revised EC Directive of 1979 (SI 1992/32 amended). All 'new' substances must be tested and results notified to the competent authorities prior to sale. In the UK these are the HSE and Secretary of State for the Environment.

There are, however, no minimum data requirements for the 100,000 'existing' substances, and this has raised questions within the sector about the quality of data available concerning toxicity and ecotoxicity (ENDS 1999a). Of the 100,000 products presently on the market, less than 1% have been properly tested and information about the effects of exposure is difficult to obtain (Environment Business News Briefing 2001). The European Environment Agency has stated that there is insufficient toxicity data available on about 75% of the 2500 or so chemicals in large-scale use.

The European Commission's white paper on the future of the chemicals industry was released in February 2001. It announced that all chemicals on the market would have to be assessed at the latest by 2012. The paper shifts the onus for carrying out these tests from public authorities to industry (Environment Business News Briefing 2001). Legislative proposals, are likely to emerge in 2002 (ENDS 2001). Since being published, the white paper has attracted sharply polarised reactions, particularly concerning the practicalities of testing tens of thousands of chemicals within a decade. These debates may impact upon the legislative proposals that eventually emerge from the European Commission.

Chemical waste with hazardous properties will be classifiable as a special waste (depending on the proportion of hazardous constituents), and must be dealt with in accordance with the Special Waste Regulations 1996 (SI 1996/972). Waste consignment note requirements will apply.

The Government is currently reviewing the Special Waste Regulations 1996, with a view to having new, amended regulations in place by the 1st of January 2002 (see Types of Waste A-Z Listing: Hazardous). The key proposals put forward by the DETR are:

adoption of the European Hazardous Waste List definition of "hazardous waste"
producer registration
no pre-notification of waste movements
quarterly returns showing wastes handled
scaled charges

Discharge consents are required for industrial producers releasing chemical waste to water. The Water Industry Act 1991 requires that all discharges of trade effluent to sewers are consented by sewerage undertakers.

The Water Resources Act 1991 requires that all discharges (including those from sewage treatment works) to receiving waters be consented by the National Rivers Authority (now part of the Environment Agency). Under section 85 of this Act, a pesticide user who 'causes or knowingly permits' pollution to a water source can face a fine of up to £20,000. No actual damage need be caused.

Emissions to air from point sources are controlled either through the operation of Integrated Pollution Control (IPC) or the Local Authority Air Pollution Control System (LAAPCS) under Part 1 of the Environmental Protection Act (EPA) 1990.

All substances controlled under these two pieces of legislation are subject to the requirement of 'Best Available Techniques Not Entailing Excessive Cost' (BATNEEC ), which is the cornerstone of Part 1 of the EPA 1990. The Act recommends that every effort should be made to protect the environment within the confines of reasonable economic cost. It covers the technology of pollution abatement and the number, qualifications, training and supervision of persons employed in the process. The EPA includes the design, construction and maintenance of the buildings in which the process is carried out. The minimisation of emission levels is thus guided by the current state and cost of available technology.

In addition to the use of BATNEEC , section 7(7) of the EPA explains that operators must also demonstrate that their process represents the Best Practicable Environmental Option (BPEO). The BPEO for hazardous chemical wastes will be determined by various techniques, including life cycle analysis. The BPEO will also be assessed according to the available waste treatment facilities.

The risk of damage to the environment from spillages and accidents involving hazardous chemicals can be significantly reduced by following the specified criteria for safe operation of installations laid out in the Control of Industrial Major Accidents Hazards Regulations 1984 (SI 1984/1902) (CIMAH).

In 1996 the EU adopted the Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCB) Disposal Directive (96/59/EC). This requires Member States to take measures to phase out and destroy identifiable PCB s by the end of 2010. Where these are already the subject of national agreements the directive specifically provides for Member States to adopt earlier dates. The UK's target date was 31 December 1999.

The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer was agreed in 1987. It was implemented in the UK in October 1988 by EU Regulations 3322/88 and 594/91. These control the production and consumption of the five main CFC s and three main halons.

The transfrontier shipment of hazardous waste is subject to EC Regulation 259/93 on the Supervision and Control of Shipments of Waste Within, Into and Out of the European Community, which is directly applicable in the UK. It implements the Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal (also known as the Basel Convention). Operators intending to ship waste across the frontier of a member state must notify the nominated competent authority in that state.

The EU Landfill Directive 99/31, will ban all liquid wastes from disposal in landfill and will necessitate the separate collection and pre-treatment of all hazardous wastes (see Types of Waste A-Z Listing: Furniture and Types of Waste A-Z Listing: Textiles) .

The EU Municipal Hazardous Waste Directive proposes that hazardous municipal waste is collected separately. Householders will need to be given information on separate collection and labelling of hazardous waste.

An international programme to assess the hazards of high volume chemicals has been agreed. The programme aims to identify chemicals that pose risks to the environment and human health. The chemical industry should complete hazard assessments for 1,000 high volume chemicals by the end of 2004.

The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) was signed in May 2001 by over 100 countries. This convention sets out measures through which they can control the production, import, export, disposal and use of POP s. Governments are to draw up national legislation and action plans, which promote the best available technologies and practices for replacing existing POP s, whilst preventing the development of new POP s (IEMA 2001). Eight POP s have been scheduled for total bans (aldrin, chlordane, DDT , dieldrin, endrin, heptachlor, mirex and toxaphene), with four others to follow (polychlorinated biphenols [PCBs], hexachlorobenzene, dioxins and furans). The convention also allows for new chemicals to be added to the list (Green Futures 2001) and will come into effect in around 2004.

There are alternatives to POP s, but these have previously been neglected due to high costs, a lack of public awareness and the absence of appropriate technology and infrastructure (IEMA 2001).

Industrial chemical emissions to the environment are controlled by pollution control legislation. Companies in the chemical industry have been pro-active in responding to legislation and in implementing formal environmental management systems (Biffa Waste Services 1994). The Chemical Industries Association (CIA) have claimed that since 1990 the discharges of the most dangerous substances have been reduced by 95% (DETR 1998), but the occurrence of significant chemical emissions still poses threats to human health and the environment.

The DETR recently published a document, 'Sustainable Production and Use of Chemicals: A Strategic Approach - The Government's Chemicals Strategy' , which outlined three main policy goals regarding the production and use of chemicals in the UK:

public disclosure of all information concerning the environmental risks of chemicals
continued reduction of the risks posed by chemicals to the environment and human health whilst maintaining the competitiveness of industry
early phasing-out of chemicals identified as representing an unacceptable risk to the environment and human health.

The Government places a duty of care on those who manufacture, supply, use or import chemicals to provide adequate information on their products to allow the environmental and health risks posed by chemicals to be assessed. Environmentally sound decisions can then be made on an informed basis (DETR 2000).

In the summer of 2000, the Government established a Chemicals Stakeholder Forum to promote better understanding between stakeholders. The Forum provides advice and targets for the development of indicators of environmental exposure to hazardous chemicals. It also advises on the criteria for the selection of priority chemicals, together with any risk management strategies, precautionary controls and restrictions that such chemicals may require. In order to function as a barometer for the views and opinions of the stakeholders, the Forum aims for transparency in all activities (DETR 2000).

Manufacturers and users of chemically based products should work with the waste industry to ensure compliance with legislation, examine long-term disposability of various by-products, assess potential risks, and minimise any detrimental impact upon the environment.

The Government's Chemicals Strategy encourages companies to voluntarily remove harmful or hazardous substances from their products. Certain difficult constituents of the waste stream such as cadmium, heavy metals and inorganics need to be minimised. The voluntary approach has already worked for paint manufacturers who have agreed to remove lead from paints (DoE 1994). It is important that agreements are supplemented by targets and timetables against which performance can be judged. Initiatives such as these often represent good economic and environmental practice. Inv.htmlent in the development and production of a product containing a harmful chemical substance will be lost, if the product is then prohibited and withdrawn from the market.

The Environment Agency advises operators to seek its advice concerning the storage of chemicals, including pesticides, even for small quantities, to help minimise the chance of spillage or leakage into the environment. Its advice includes the following:

chemical substances, including pesticides, should be kept in a suitable store, and protected against fire and theft
the store should be locked and clearly marked and should only contain enough for immediate need
records of the store contents should be kept in a separate place in case of an accident
any new stores should be sited well away from watercourses, drains, boreholes and areas prone to flooding
Any spillages should be absorbed with an inert material such as sawdust or fine sand, and disposed of in a safe manner
Only the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (MAFF) - now the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) - or HSE approved and numbered pesticide products should be stored (Environment Agency 1999).

Segregation of certain substances in storage is important to prevent chemical reactions on site and escapes of hazardous substances.

mercury, and materials containing mercury, should be segregated from any other waste
organic compounds should be separated from any oxidisers
aqueous wastes should be segregated from organic solvents
heavy metal compounds, oxidisers, phenols, strong acids or bases should not be put in safety cans (National Institutes of Health 1997).

Extreme care should be taken when mixing pesticides. The following points should be noted:

a designated safe area for mixing can prevent spillages reaching drains, groundwater sources or water courses
closed transfer and direct injection systems will negate the need for manual mixing
back-siphoning can be avoided by ensuring that there is no direct connection between the spray tank and the water supply (Environment Agency 1999).

The following precautions should be followed when applying any chemical substance, such as pesticides or fertilisers:

follow the instructions on the manufacturer's label
prepare only the amount required, thus avoiding the need to dispose of any surplus
substances such as pesticides and fertilisers should not be applied when wind conditions may cause spray to drift into watercourses (Environment Agency 1999).

Good practice principles and guidelines also apply to householders using chemical based products, however small the amount. The following guidelines should be adopted:

consumers should not purchase more than they need
a product should only be used for its intended purpose
instructions must be closely followed and garden chemicals applied correctly. Application of fertilisers and herbicides should be carried out away from drains and water courses and, if possible, not before heavy rainfall
an entire product should be used before its container is disposed of
only mix the recommended dosage and the appropriate amount for the job
store the substance in its original packaging, tightly closed away from extremes of temperature
ensure that the products are kept away from children, pets and food (B&Q 1998).

Substitute common household chemical products with less hazardous alternatives. For example:

baking soda acts as a scouring powder, cleans, deodorises and softens water
pure soap biodegrades safely and completely
white vinegar deodorises and cuts grease and grime
washing soda removes stains, cuts grease and deodorises
borax helps soften water, cleans and disinfects (Essex Windsor Solid Waste Authority 1999)

The amount of waste produced on site can be minimised by reviewing waste outflows and cutting out any unnecessary waste. This may involve re-using certain resources in the production process. Biffa Waste Services recommends the bulking up of identical substances and the use of returnable containers in manufacturing operations (Biffa Waste Services 1994).

Waste exchange schemes have been introduced to bring together waste producers and potential purchasers of such materials. Waste Exchange Services, is a company that offers this service on a national scale. There are also a number of schemes that operate on a local level. Several companies have established websites to develop the concept of waste exchanges (e.g. www.where-theresmuck.com). Such initiatives are in their infancy but there seems to be potential for using the web to facilitate waste exchange nationally.

The re-use rather than disposal of substances arising on farms can bring both environmental and economic benefits. Manures and slurry provide valuable nutrients and organic matter if properly applied to the land and may reduce the need to apply inorganic fertilisers.

Surplus materials and chemicals can be re-used by householders, parks and gardens departments of local authorities, and allotment associations, if in a suitable condition. The product must be in its original container with clearly visible instructions and labelling. Waste paint and oil can be taken to recovery banks located at civic amenity sites across the country (see Types of Waste A-Z Listing: Oil and Types of Waste A-Z Listing: Paint).

Careful segregation is of vital importance to any recovery process, as an accidental mixture of chemical substances such as solvents can be very difficult and expensive to separate. The mixing of solvents may rule out any form of economic recovery (Croner 2001).

The chemical industry rigorously recycles the majority of its surplus materials. Effluents are the exception, excluded from the recycling processes by 75% of chemical companies (Biffa Waste Services 1994).

It may be cost effective to implement technology to recycle contaminated process water from manufacturing. The case study of Goldrite Metal Finishing Ltd (below) demonstrates the savings involved in this process and the reduction in chemical effluents (Environmental Technology Best Practice Programme 1996).

MAFF and the BOC Foundation conducted research in 1996 and 1997 to investigate whether industrial waste minimisation principles could be applied in agriculture (DETR 1999). Collecting and examining information on existing practices and disposal routes identified savings in a variety of waste streams, including animal feeds, purchased fertilisers, waste pesticides, packaging, and water and energy consumption. A waste minimisation manual is available from these organisations, to enable farmers to review their processes and to identify waste reduction methods.

The British Agrichemical Association (BAA) advises householders that empty garden chemical containers are not suitable for recycling schemes as the packaging might be contaminated with product residues.

Information and representation is available for those with an interest in the recovery of chemicals through the Chemical Recycling Association. The association was set up in October 1998 as a non-profit making organisation to represents individuals, commercial undertakings and public bodies interested in the recovery of chemicals from the waste stream (Croner 2001).

Waste exchanges have emerged that bring together waste producers and those wishing to use unwanted chemicals for other manufacturing processes. Chemical substances most regularly traded include acids and alkalis, other inorganic chemicals, solvents, oils and waxes, plastics, metals and metal sludges.

Chemical waste must not be stored for long periods and should be disposed of within sixty days.

Water should not be used as a universal disposal route when dealing with chemical effluent of surplus chemical products. Household chemical waste in small quantities may be applied to land if kept away from watercourses. Excess spray solutions and waste liquid resulting from cleaning equipment can be applied to an area of uncultivated ground where they will be quickly broken down. Larger amounts should be taken to specialist waste facilities at a household waste site. In some areas, local authorities can be contacted if a special collection is required.

If material recovery is not a practicable option, a possible alternative is the use of combustible waste for fuel. A number of large companies already have their own incinerators for both waste disposal and energy recovery, whilst certain chemical wastes are incinerated to power cement kilns. Municipal chemical waste can be burned using large-scale energy from waste incinerators to generate electricity. Substances with a high calorific value are the most suitable, such as hydrocarbon solvents.

In June 1999 Onyx Total Waste Management (TWM), in collaboration with the National Chemical Emergency Centre (NCEC), set up a unique service for the chemical sector. The new service, Caseaid, aims to provide an integrated approach to chemical safety management. It achieves this by providing round-the-clock advice and clean-up services in the event of accidents involving chemical spillage.

Onyx has provided six depots in the UK (Cheshire, Hull, Birmingham, Teeside, Grangemouth and St Albans). Designated vehicles, equipment and personnel are stationed at each site on a 24-hour basis. Personnel are trained in chemical handling, including high pressure water jetting and the use of personal protective equipment and breathing apparatus.

Onyx has been running chemical clean-up services informally for the last ten years, but is now in the position to guarantee a constant level of response to their customers. The NCEC was an ideal partner for the project as it was already involved in the provision of information on chemical emergency procedures to industry.

SOURCE: INDUSTRIAL ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 1999

Mold Hygiene Chemicals Company Ltd manufactures cleansing liquids, and other industrial hygiene products, by blending bleach and acid-based products and detergents. The importance of environmental matters became critical when, in 1993, charges for effluent disposal rose sharply. An environmental review was conducted, with findings including higher annual effluent costs than previously estimated, and loss of saleable product in the effluent, coupled with the environmental implications of the findings.

Therefore, waste minimisation strategies were implemented. Bleach product residues were collected instead of being rinsed, and incorporated into a new batch of products. Acid product wastes were reduced by separating different products in specific waste tanks, to be reused as part of the dilution water in the next blend. Detergent waste was also minimised by introducing premium pricing for small batches.

The projected annual cost savings from a reduction in waste production was calculated at £15,000. Through installing larger product tanks, improving sequencing of batches and introducing other techniques, Mold Hygiene hopes to increase savings to around £23,000 / year. Therefore, by reducing chemical pollutants in the environment, the company are making big cost savings.

SOURCE: ENVIROWISE 2001

The European Commission has decided to amend the draft Water Framework Directive in order to include controls on the release of substances dangerous to the aquatic environment. These new controls would be based on and would eventually replace the 1976 Directive on dangerous substances in water (76/464/EEC) (DETR 2000).

Priority lists of chemicals will initially be prepared by the Commission on the basis of risk assessment. A series of daughter directives will then set emission standards for these priority chemicals. The means of controlling the discharges of these substances would depend on the source.

The former DETR's new chemicals strategy will increase the level of information provision concerning environmental risks from chemicals, and will require the chemicals industry to continue to work to reduce the risks chemicals pose to the environment and human health. The Government places a duty of care on all those involved in the manufacture, supply, use of or importation of chemicals. Under this Duty of Care those involved will be required to provide adequate information on their products in order to allow the environmental and health risks posed by chemicals to be assessed (DETR 2000).

The fundamental review of the Special Waste Regulations 1996 - currently being undertaken by the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) - will assess whether they are effectively and efficiently achieving Government policy objectives. Alternative options will also be identified for the future regulation of hazardous waste in the UK, with a view to having amended regulations in place by the 1st of January 2002 (see Types of Waste A-Z Listing: Hazardous).