The battery, first introduced over 100 years ago, is an every day part of modern living. A battery is an electrochemical device that works by converting chemical energy into electrical energy. The growth of mobile communications and power tools has increased our dependence on battery powered equipment. Meeting the power source requirements for different products has led to the development of a number of battery types that differ in performance and chemistry. These are summarised in Table 1.

Table 1 Different battery types

BATTERY TYPE	CHEMISTRY	GENERAL USES
Household battery	Alkaline manganese Zinc oxide	Personal stereos, torches, clocks, etc. Single-use and discarded once drained (finished)
Button cell battery	Silver oxide Zinc air Lithium Alkaline Mercuric oxide	Watches, calculators and hearing aids. Single-use, and discarded once drained.
Automotive battery	Lead-acid	Used almost exclusively for ignition in vehicles. Once started, the engine motion recharges the battery, which must be replaced approximately every 5-7 years.
Rechargeable battery	Nickel-cadmium (NiCd) Nickel-metal hydride (NiMH) Lithium-ion New technologies, e.g. rechargeable alkaline	Mobile phones, video cameras, emergency lighting, power tools and appliances around the home. The battery can be recharged a finite number of times to provide power.

SOURCE: POLL 1996

Single-use batteries are discarded once drained and are known as primary batteries. Rechargeable batteries are collectively known as secondary batteries.

The battery industry recognised the environmental problems associated with mercury in the late 1980s. Mercury is used in batteries to prevent the formation of gas around the electrodes which would otherwise disrupt the production of electrical energy. However, there were feasible alternatives to mercury and the battery industry implemented a programme to eliminate all mercury from household batteries. Since 1994 all household batteries entering the market have been classed as mercury-free, with the exception of some button cell batteries (see Table 1 above).

Approximately 634 million primary batteries were sold in the UK in 1998 (BBMA 1999). Household batteries (see Overview: Table 1) dominate the market with an 89% share. 0The rechargeable (NiCd and NiMH ) batteries occupied a fraction of the market; 2% by volume in 1997, but this figure is increasing as the price of these batteries falls (Mintel 1998). The average householder uses 21 batteries a year (BBMA 1999).

Currently, in the UK, spent batteries are discarded along with general consumer waste. Evaluating the environmental impact of these batteries is challenging due to the discrepancies in the calculated quantities of spent batteries in dustbin waste. For example, previous studies have estimated that spent batteries account for 0.1-0.2% by weight of the general waste stream (Poll 1996) but more recent reports suggest they make up as little as 0.001% by weight (REBAT 2000a).

Perhaps the most widely used secondary battery is the mobile phone battery. There are an estimated 14 million mobile phones in use in the UK and this is expected to increase to 25 million by 2002 (European Telecommunications and Professional Electronics Industry 2000). Mobile phones are powered by a rechargeable battery, typically NiMH or NiCd , that can be recycled at reprocessing facilities in mainland Europe (France, Switzerland and Sweden). Rapid advances in technology have lead to an almost constant introduction of new phones onto the market and an average user replaces their phone every two years (ENDS 1997). Discarded phones usually end up in the dustbin and are subsequently landfilled - a waste of both landfill space and recoverable materials.

The negative environmental impact attributed to batteries is due to their heavy metal metal content. Heavy metals including cadmium, mercury and lead are known to promote neurological, pulmonary, renal and genetic disorders. When these metals enter the environment bioaccumulation occurs in plant and animal matter with detrimental effects (NHHWF 1998).

This means even small quantities of batteries containing heavy metals are potentially hazardous. An Environment Agency (EA) report suggests that nickel-cadmium (NiCd) rechargeable batteries were the source of 516 tonnes of cadmium in the waste stream in 1995 (ENDS 1998).

These regulations impact on certain battery types in public recycling banks. At present there is widespread uncertainty regarding battery collection and reprocessing under these regulations. This is due to some battery waste being classed as exempt and other battery waste being classified as special waste. If batteries are classed as special waste then a consignment note is needed when five batteries or more are transported at any one time. This has made small collections and transportation uneconomic due to the paperwork involved. However, amendments have been proposed to boost the movement of small quantities of batteries, and further consultation around the regulations is under way as this document is being written. It is hoped that any amendments will reduce licensing difficulties for point of sale and public recycling facilities.

The European Union (EU) has been formulating legislation on batteries since the 1980s and specific measures were introduced in the early 1990s. In particular, Directive 91/157/EEC focused on the restriction and labelling of batteries containing heavy metals. However, differing responses to this legislation among member states has led to the proposed implementation of another EU directive to extend previous legislation. The legislation is detailed in Table 2.

Table 2 Current and proposed EU battery legislation

LEGISLATION	AIM
Directive 91/157/EEC	Prohibit the sale of alkaline batteries containing more than 0.025% mercury by weight Investigate means to collect post-consumer batteries containing more than 0.025% cadmium, 0.4% lead and 25mg mercury Design equipment to facilitate easy removal of battery
Commission Directive 93/86/EC	All the batteries covered by 91/157/EEC should carry a crossed-out wheelie bin logo and the relevant chemical symbol: Lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), mercury (Hg)
Commission Directive 98/101/EC - adapting 91/157 to technical progress (not yet implemented in the UK)	Prohibit the marketing of all batteries containing more than 0.0005% mercury by weight Prohibit the marketing of button cells containing more than 2% mercury by weight
Proposed extension to Directive 91/157/EEC (expected to be in force by 2004)	An immediate all out ban of all batteries containing mercury EU member states should collect all batteries Collection targets: 75% of all consumer batteries and 95% of used industrial batteries No less than 55% of all materials contained in the collected spent batteries will be recycled A voluntary agreement to promote take back and recycling of NiCd batteries

SOURCE: NHHWF

In 1993, the British battery industry took steps to reduce the amount of batteries that fell within the scope of Directive 91/157/EEC. This was achieved by reducing the heavy metal content of batteries and by identifying ways to facilitate recycling. As a first step to recycling mercury free primary cells, the UK battery industry has introduced an ultraviolet fluorescent label to help identify them, to aid recovery and recycling.

By anticipating EU Directive 91/157/EEC, the battery industry effectively eliminated mercury in alkaline batteries before they were legally obliged to do so (see Overview: Mercury and the Battery Industry). With regard to the proposed batteries directive, the battery industry welcomes the elimination of mercury from all battery types. The removal of mercury is seen to be key to the future of battery collection and recycling. This is discussed in more detail below (see Waste Management Options: Recovery).

The original proposals for extending Directive 91/157/EC suggested a complete ban on NiCd batteries by 2008. But this was modified after lobbying by the European Portable Battery Association and French NiCd manufacturer. The NiCd industry argued that the ban would cause the loss of 10,000 jobs, without having a significant effect on levels of cadmium pollution (Vollrath 1999). In the UK, it was felt prudent to await a full risk assessment (currently being carried out in Belgium) before introducing any restrictions on the sale of NiCd products. The battery industry have also presented a strong case that, as yet, there is no viable alternative to using NiCd batteries in power tools, due to the lack of output from other secondary cells such as NiMH and L-ion. In addition, the battery industry regard the proposed collection and recycling targets as unreasonably high, when compared to levels achieved by other member states who have well-established collection programmes. It is also the general opinion of the British Battery Manufacturers Association (BBMA) that the collection of all batteries should not begin immediately after the implementation of the directive. This is due to the problem of mercury (see Case Studies: reBAT). It is expected the debate around the new directive will continue and the EU will issue a revised proposal later in 2001.

In addition to EU legislation directly related to batteries, other directives will impose regulation on batteries in the waste stream. For example, waste from batteries and electrical cells are subject to collection, transport and disposal controls under the Hazardous Waste Directive 91/689/EEC (see Types of Waste A-Z Listing: Hazardous). Another directive that may impact on batteries is the Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) directive (see Types of Waste A-Z Listing: Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment). This directive will facilitate the reclamation and recycling of electrical goods, many of which are battery operated. It is expected that the proposed Batteries directive will be implemented first and will have precedence.

Amendments to the Basel Convention have had an impact in terms of lead acid battery recycling. In the past, many of these batteries have been exported to countries such as Indonesia, due to the lower disposal costs there rather than any environmental management advantages. While these countries may be equipped to recycle lead waste, this takes place in an informal and unstructured industry, often in small poorly designed facilities that are subject to lower standards than in the UK and Europe. The amendments to the Convention ban the transboundary movement of hazardous waste, a move welcomed by the UK lead reprocessing industry, who wish batteries to be recycled in line with the proximity principle and high health and safety standards.

There are extensive programmes to collect and recycle lead-acid automotive and silver oxide button cell batteries in the UK as a result of the economic return on the silver and lead. However, schemes to collect and recycle other battery types are still in their infancy.

In other EU member states, (e.g. Germany, Switzerland and the Netherlands), implementation of national legislation, in response to the EU Directives, has led to the establishment of collection schemes for all battery types.

The EU battery directives do not aim to reduce battery use. Instead, they focus on the reduction of heavy metals used in battery manufacture by proposing to ban mercury and reduce cadmium. The responsibility lies with the battery industry to develop products with alternative chemistries such as rechargeable alkaline batteries or longer-life batteries which are already on the market. It is acknowledged that reducing battery use by using mains power would limit the environmental impact of these heavy metals. However, as Norm England, President of the Portable Rechargeable Battery Association recognises, the preferential use of mains electricity over battery power is challenged by 'the consumer's wish to be free of a cord'.

Encouraging the use of secondary batteries instead of primary batteries is based upon the ability to recharge and reuse these batteries a number of times. This will reduce the amount of battery waste generated. However, unlike most primary batteries, rechargeable batteries contain heavy metals (e.g. lead, mercury, cadmium). The processing costs are therefore higher for secondary batteries as they have to be dealt with at a dedicated plant.

The recovery and recycling of lead-acid automotive and silver oxide button cell batteries is driven by economics. The market value of the extracted silver or lead is greater than the cost of recovering the spent battery waste. Despite the metal content, this is not the case for other types of battery waste.

Several factors influence the financial viability of recovery and recycling, including the:

• value of the recovered products, e.g. metals, metal oxides
• availability of sufficient quantities of spent batteries (economy of scale)
• degree of segregation of the waste stream into different battery type
• cost of sorting the spent batteries into type
• cost of transporting the batteries to the reprocessing plant
• cost of reprocessing the batteries to extract the recoverable fraction.

In countries where battery collection is commonplace, the problem of single-type collection is overcome by manual and automated sorting. In addition to segregating battery type, batteries containing mercury must also be removed from the waste stream before recycling. Primary cell batteries can be feasibly recycled in a metallurgical process known as an Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) which is used to process secondary material feedstock. However, batteries entering the EAF process have to be guaranteed mercury free. Mercury is a very volatile metal. If heated it quickly becomes mercury vapour and passes through the smelter and into the atmosphere where it can be taken up by plants and animals. However sorting, especially by hand, is expensive so more cost-effective sorting technologies are being investigated.

As with sorting technology, reprocessing technology is still under development. Reprocessing plants that recycle cadmium and nickel from rechargeable (NiCd and NiMH ) batteries have been established in France, Sweden and Switzerland, and a plant has recently been opened in Rotterdam that can accept mixed battery waste (thereby eliminating the sorting process). Methods to reprocess lithium-ion and household batteries are also at various stages of development. A recent development has been a pilot scheme which involves grinding up domestic zinc and alkaline batteries, the zinc and manganese components are separated by hydrometallurgical techniques.

In the UK, there are facilities to reprocess silver oxide and lead-acid batteries. It is also the view of the UK battery industry that, through technology developed for the steel industry, it will soon be possible to reprocess other types of battery. However, at present it is unlikely that any such facilities for other battery types (e.g. rechargeable NiCd , NiMH and lithium batteries) will be established. In the mean time collected rechargeable batteries have to be shipped to France for recycling, incurring a high cost.

Consumers dispose of batteries in household waste destined for landfill sites. As the waste decomposes noxious liquids are released and reports suggest that leakage into the environment is highly likely (ENDS 1998). Reducing the amount of battery waste through recovery and recycling will reduce the impact of noxious by-products on the environment.

Spent silver oxide button cell batteries are collected by jewellers after replacement. Lead car batteries are collected by garages in a similar way. Collection points exist for mobile phone users to return the rechargeable battery, and some local authorities are setting up collection banks at civic amenity (CA) sites. At present, these are the only alternatives to disposing of spent batteries with general waste. However, with the impending EU batteries directive, nationwide collection facilities are likely to be available in the near future.

Managed by the British Battery Manufacturers Association (BBMA), ReBAT is an organisation that aims to encourage the collection of NiCd rechargeable batteries. It was established in response to the EU Batteries Directive 91/157 but was put on hold in early 1999, pending discussions with the Office of Fair Trading regarding funding mechanisms for the collection of these batteries.

The ReBAT website (www.rebat.com) provides information regarding NiCd recycling and contact details of BBMA member companies and appliance manufacturers. These companies, while not necessarily operating collection schemes, may be able to provide advice to individuals with batteries for disposal.

While ReBAT accepts the proposed batteries directive, it has expressed concern regarding the timing required for implementation. Instead of immediate collection of all batteries, ReBAT supports the European Portable Battery Organisations' Two-Step Plan:

Step 1: Elimination of mercury from all batteries

Step 2: Collecting and recycling of all batteries once mercury-containing batteries are no longer in the waste stream - anticipated to be four years after Step 1 (EPBA 1997)

Step 1 has already been implemented by Commission Decision 98/101 (see Legislation). However, ReBAT does not advocate the collection of all batteries until 2004 when the waste stream is likely to be mercury-free (see Waste Management Options: Recovery). Batteries tend to be hoarded or left in equipment for a long time. It is thought that starting an immediate collection of all batteries will result in the collection of a large amount of pre-1994 mercury-containing batteries, which have been 'stored' in the home. By 2004, these batteries should have worked their way out of the home and the waste stream. Collecting all batteries after this date will provide a mercury-free waste stream which can be recycled without risk of mercury emission. However, the timing of step 2 is still under discussion and, as yet, no collection programmes are underway.

SOURCE: REBAT, 2000B

A new process to recover metals from spent batteries offers a profitable answer to the disposal problem. The process uses hydrometallurgical techniques and involves grinding up domestic dry cell and alkaline batteries, and then separating the zinc and manganese dioxide components by solvent extraction. The metals can then be recovered by electrolysis.

A British research group, EA Technology, is running a 12-month programme to develop the process commercially, the first time such techniques have been used on a large scale. This innovative programme is being funded by Waste Recycling Environmental Ltd under the landfill tax credit scheme, and will go some way to reducing the environmental hazard and waste from discarded batteries.

SOURCE: ENVIRONMENT BUSINESS NEWS BRIEFING 2001

The UK Government is currently funding research into the cost implications of recycling household batteries in the UK.

The proposal for a new EU directive on batteries (see Legislation: Table 2) is necessary because:

• collection and recycling rates vary significantly across Europe
• 'level playing field' not established
• confusion amongst consumers regarding battery types and waste management options
• significant quantities of hazardous materials still entering waste steam.

Key provisions could include:

• collection targets of 75% by weight of all spent consumer batteries
• collection targets of 95% by weight of all spent industrial and automotive batteries
• recycling target of 55% by weight of all separately collected spent batteries
• restrictions from 2008 on cadmium in batteries
• all batteries (and some appliances) to display prescribed markings
• design of appliances for easy battery removal
• data provision on battery collection, recovery, disposal
• informing the public of the dangers of dumping and the management options available.

Even when the proposed EU Batteries Directive becomes law it will include a period of time for the development of the collection infrastructure, marketing and labelling systems. The current requirement to eliminate mercury is likely to stand but the banning of cadmium may no longer be included.

Considerable infrastructural development will need to take place to meet the likely requirements of the proposed directive, as there is currently very little activity around battery collections (particularly from households) in the UK, other than for lead-acid batteries. This is likely to require collection facilities at civic amenity sites but may also involve retailers and manufacturers participating in take-back schemes. The funding of these facilities will be challenging - local authorities will expect funds to be provided by the industry and not from local taxes. Ultimately, the consumer will pay through higher costs. Whether this is applied as a levy on new batteries or indirectly in higher charges is yet to be agreed.

For battery recycling to be maximised public participation must be simplified so that it requires as little effort as possible. In addition, it must be free of both financial cost, or perceived costs, such as wasted time, fuel or personal inconvenience. Clear, consistent messages, such as protecting the environment and resource conservation are also needed. It must be recognised however, that persistent campaigning is necessary when promoting the recycling of a product that is not in every day use. Research has suggested that a quarter of the British public are not interested in recycling and among 20-34 year olds only 27% have an interest in recycling (British Secondary Metals Association 2000). This makes maximising public participation a challenging task.

Reducing the number of battery products used is another option for managing battery waste, and Friends of the Earth advocate a shift from batteries to mains electricity. However, this seems unlikely to materialise as the trend currently is for increased usage; consumers appear to like portable appliances; and there are safety issues to consider (e.g. power tools).

An automated sorting plant (operating in the Netherlands) can separate batteries according to their metal content and type. Such a plant is likely to be required in the UK if the targets in the directive are to be reached. The recycling of spent batteries, however, is still a contentious issue.

The industry maintains that the collection and processing of all batteries should not begin until mercury-containing batteries have been eliminated from the waste stream. Once this has been achieved, general purpose batteries can be recycled along with other metals waste. Battery waste for metal processing must contain less than 5 ppm mercury. The batteries industry believes these levels will not be reached until 2003 - 2004. Research using battery date codes showed that an average of 2.5 years elapse between battery manufacture and disposal and in some cases there was a 10 year lag (Fujimoto 1999).

The take-back requirements of the directive are likely to result in some changes at the point of sale. If participation becomes mandatory, retailers that do not want to become involved may have to choose not to sell batteries. Current and planned legislation has resulted in many changes to the batteries market including the elimination of mercury and the introduction of non-heavy metal batteries. Further restructuring of the batteries market is likely to occur as the collection and recycling infrastructure begin to develop. While predicting the future of the industry is difficult it is certain that it will not remain static.