• home
• search
• about
• contact
• links

After it's been binned

 

what's in your bin?	household waste recycling
waste collection	materials recycling facilities
residual waste disposal, recycling and recovery	biodegradable waste
landfill	energy from waste

You have thrown out your rubbish and also your recyclables- but have you ever thought about where it goes to and what happens to it once it leaves your house or flat?

It is estimated that nearly 36 million tonnes of municipal waste was generated in the UK in 2004/05. A total of 30 million tonnes of this waste was collected from households. That's about 500 kg or half a tonne of household waste per person! Although household rubbish represents a relatively small percentage (about 9%) of the total amount of waste produced it is a highly significant proportion because it contains large quantities of organic waste which can cause pollution problems, as well as materials such as glass and plastics which do not break down easily. 

What's in your bin?

top of page

source: Analysis of household waste composition and factors driving waste increases, Dr. J. Parfitt, WRAP, December 2002

Waste collection

top of page

Waste from our homes is generally collected by our local authorities through regular waste collection, or by special collections for recycling.

The Waste Collection Authority (WCA) is a local authority charged with the collection of waste from each household in its area on a regular basis. It can also collect, if requested, commercial and industrial wastes from the private sector. In England these are the District Councils and Unitary Authorities.

Municipal waste includes all wastes collected by the Waste Collection Authorities (WCAs), or their agents, such as all household waste, street litter, municipal parks and gardens waste, council office waste and some commercial and industrial waste.

Legally, your authority is required by the Environment Protection Act to collect and dispose of your rubbish. This requirement has its origins in the need to protect the health of the population. Despite this, each collection authority can make its own decisions as to the method and timing of waste collection.

In 2003/04, 55% of household waste in England was collected from regular household collections (excluding recycling collections.)

In addition, householders may make special trips to their CA site, or organise a bulky waste collection in order to dispose of particular items.

This sounds simple enough, but in reality there are numerous ways of collecting rubbish. Most councils pick up residual waste (waste that is not intended for recycling or composting) weekly. Many offer an additional recycling collection either weekly or fortnightly. The methods used to collect residual waste include containers such as black sacks, wheelie bins or regular bins.

There are many reasons for selecting a particular type of collection infrastructure which may include the method and place of disposal used by the authority, the physical layout for the collection and the current system in place. In addition demographic and cultural factors relating to the population served may be of importance.

Although it would appear that the method used to collect residual waste also affects the quantity of waste produced and the participation in recycling schemes, other factors such as the size of households in particular areas may also be of importance.

Who pays for waste collection?

The cost of collection and disposal of household waste is met through taxation. Most commercial and industrial waste is collected and disposed of by the private sector.The cost of collection and disposal under these arrangements is met through charges.

Charging for waste collection

The concept of direct charging is used to denote charging for waste by weight, volume or a combination of both. Currently there is no legal provision for this for householders within the UK, although examples from other countries show that some form of variable charging can strongly influence recycling and waste minimisation behaviour.

Some councils, eg Barnet, have introduced the possibility of fining residents that do not use their recycling facilities. This, in addition to schemes whereby bins are tagged and monitored are becoming more common place as councils seek methods to increase their recycling rates.

Recycling collections

Both the residual waste collection and the management of the collection of recyclable waste, varies significantly from one WCA to the next.

Local Authorities have been set targets to increase recycling to between 10-33% over the next years.

Through these and additional measures the hope is to increase the recycling of household waste to the targets set by the Government and the Welsh Assembly

• To recycle/compost at least 25% of household waste by 2005
• To recycle/compost at least 30% of household waste by 2010
• To recycle/compost at least 33% of household waste by 2015

Recovery targets for municipal waste are:

• To recover value from 40% of municipal waste by 2005
• To recover value from 45% of municipal waste by 2010
• To recover value from 67% of municipal waste by 2015 

What you can do.

You can take a significant proportion of your household waste to local recycling banks and civic amenity sites (CAs, now becoming known as household waste recycling centres). See our subject a-z for specifics. Some households may not be within easy walking distance of a recycling bank and you may be forced to use a car, requiring energy and resources and cancelling out many of the environmental benefits of recycling. Don't make a special car journey to recycle your waste, or better still, walk to the recycling banks. To find your nearest recycling point check the recyclenow web site

In 2003/4 79% of English households were offered a kerbside collection. 65% of all English households had a paper or card kerbside recycling collection, cans from 41% of households, and glass 40% and compost 43%.

In addition 11.5 million UK households can now participate in kerbside recycling collections that include plastic bottles

Material for recycling needs to be clean and uncontaminated, (meaning not mixed with other materials). Problems are caused when the wrong materials are put into the wrong recycling banks. Make sure that you wash bottles and cans in leftover washing up water (running the hot water especially is a waste of water and energy!). Always put the correct materials in the correct recycling bank. Technology is being developed to deal with more mixed and contaminated material, however at present we need to take care in order for recycling to be efficient. Contaminating collected materials this way can make the whole batch unusable for recycling.

There are two main types of kerbside recycling collection: co-mingled and source separated. Co-mingled (or mixed) collections involve all of the different types of materials collected being freely mixed together in one container. This is then separated into individual material types at a materials recycling facility (MRF). Source separated collections involve the recyclate (the material collected for recycling) being separated into different material types at the point of collection. Sometimes the householder sorts different materials into different containers, then each material type is separated into different compartments of the collection vehicle by its operatives.

A variety of containers are used to collect kerbside recyclate including boxes, wheelie bins, sacks and re-usable bags. Research exists for use by councils introducing new schemes that investigates the effectiveness of different methods in increasing the quantities of recyclate collected by each authority and the cost of implementation. There is no legislation requiring bins to be of a particular colour although some uniformity of labelling around the country is becoming evident as local authorities join the "recycle-now" promotion.

 

Residual waste disposal, recycling and recovery

top of page

After collection, the residual waste is disposed of (either through landfill or incineration) and the recyclate remanufactured and/or energy recovered (if energy is recovered from waste it is classed as recovery rather than disposal - see incineration below).

The Waste Disposal Authority (WDA) is a local authority charged with providing disposal sites to which it directs the waste collection authorities for the disposal of controlled waste, and with providing civic amenity facilities. In England these are the County Councils and the Unitary Authorities.

The options for dealing with our rubbish are described in the "waste hierarchy" - with those towards the top of the list more desirable than those towards the bottom.

 

(image reproduced courtesy of Sligo County Council)

The main methods currently employed are landfilling, recycling, composting and energy from waste plants. These together with alternative and emerging technologies are discussed below.

Despite the hierarchy, the majority of UK waste is still being disposed of through landfill. Whilst it is difficult to monitor reduction and reuse schemes, councils and waste management companies do collect figures allowing us to note how much of collected waste is intended for recycling (or recovery) and how much for final disposal through landfill.

Landfilltop of page

Historically the UK has landfilled (or "dumped") much of its waste. At the most basic level landfilling involves placing waste in a hole in the ground and covering it with soil. Today, the engineering of a modern landfill is a complex process, typically involving lining and capping individual "cells" or compartments into which waste is compacted and covered to prevent the escape of polluting liquid or gases. In newer landfill sites, systems are installed to capture and remove the gases and liquids produced by the rotting rubbish.

Over recent years the UK has favoured landfill for getting rid of our rubbish and this has been possible because of our geology. Mineral extraction and quarrying left large holes in the ground which were restored by filling with waste. In addition, the underlying geology often provided naturally impermeable ground conditions, allowing us to bury our waste with less risk of liquids seeping out and polluting groundwater. The consequence of this was that landfill was relatively cheap.

Of course this is not to suggest that landfills do not harm the environment or cause a nuisance. Poorly managed sites have resulted in polluted ground or surface waters and uncontrolled landfill gas generation. Without proper control, landfills can be a source of nuisance to neighbours as a result of, for example, odours, flies, litter or noise in the surrounding area.

There are other problems with landfilling which cannot be avoided by good site management and control. Many current landfill sites are nearly full and we are rapidly running out of suitable land, close to where the waste is produced, for new landfills. Most importantly, when we landfill our waste we are simply burying and losing our resources.

Waste going to landfill is now taxed. This is gradually reducing the perceived cost benefit of  landfilling our waste and providing funding for alternative waste management. In April 2004 the Landfill Tax rate for active waste increased by £1 to £15 per tonne. The Chancellor's Pre-Budget Report 2002 announced that the Landfill Tax for active waste would be increasing by a minimum of £3 per tonne from 2005-06, until it reaches a rate of £35 per tonne in the medium to long term; a rate which will bring the UK in line with other European countries.

Household waste recycling top of page

Recycling is the first of the three "recovery" processes in the waste hierarchy. Recycling recovers materials, by preventing them from being disposed of, and makes them into new goods. This can involve turning the old material into a new version of the same thing, or materials can be recycled into something completely different. For example, used glass bottles can be recycled into new bottles, or they can be recycled into something different, such materials used in road construction.

Recycling is one of the tools available to us to help use resources better and reduce the environmental impacts associated with disposing of rubbish. It can reduce demand for raw materials by extending their life and maximising the value extracted from them. It can also save energy, and reduce emissions to air and water, in the production process. Not least, recycling helps us become more aware of environmental issues and encourages us to take personal responsibility for the wastes we create.

 

In England these were the percentages of the recyclate collected.

Recyclate may be sent directly to a reprocessor but mixed collections are frequently handled first by being separated at a materials recycling (or recovery) facility (MRF).

Materials recycling facilities (MRF)top of page

At a MRF large quantities of mixed dry recyclate are separated into their constituent components and baled prior to sending to reprocessors.

At the MRF the materials typically travel along a conveyor belt and the specific fractions are gradually removed. Metals may be extracted using magnets, paper taken off by weight and other screening devises used.

Due to the problems of plastic identification, at many MRFs these are still hand separated, however advances in technology are allowing some MRFs to use electronic means to identify and separate different plastics from the waste stream.

Reprocessors

Following separation into their constituent parts the recyclate is then reprocessed at a reprocessing plant.

The activities at these plants are specific to the material being processed.

• metals and glass are heated to a high temperature and may be reprocessed into new products or the original product
• with material such as plastic, the waste is converted into a granulate or pellet which is then used in the manufacture of a recycled or part recycled plastic product
• paper is pulped and shredded and it too will be added to a mix forming part of the raw material for the paper

Some materials such as aluminium and glass can be recycled indefinitely, as the process does not affect their structure. Other materials, such as paper, require a mixture of waste and raw material to manufacture a new product. Many goods produced with recycled content will end up in the shops as ordinary household products, such as bin bags, stationery, furniture, or even filling for duvets and pillows.

See our information sheets on each specific material for further details.

Disposal of biodegradable waste - avoidance of landfilltop of page

The biodegradable component of municipal waste that will break down is know as BMW and includes kitchen and garden waste, paper, card and more. The diversion of biodegradable municipal waste from landfill is a key objective under the Landfill Directive. One tonne of biodegradable waste produces between 200 and 400m³ of landfill gas. Landfills released 25% of the UK's methane emissions in 2003, about 2% of UK total greenhouse gas emissions.

Within the Landfill Directive only 75% of the 1995 quantities of BMW are allowed to be landfilled by 2010, 50% of 1995 qhantities by 2013 and 35% of 1995 quantities by 2020. Consequently composting and other technologies to deal with this waste stream are growing in importance. The Landfill Regulations and the Waste & Emissions Trading Act 2003 have transposed these targets into English law.

Composting

About 5 per cent of household waste was composted centrally in 2002/03. In 2002/03 45 per cent of unitary and disposal authorities had established centralised composting schemes with 10 per cent planning to introduce such a scheme following a cost evaluation. There are a greater number of centralised schemes established in non-metropolitan authorities with 56 per cent compared to metropolitan and London authorities with only about 20-25 per cent having an established scheme. (http://www.defra.gov.uk/environment/statistics/wastats/mwb0203/wbch02.htm#wbch02centcompschemes )

See our composting sheet for further information

Incinerationtop of page

Incineration is the burning of waste. Incineration may be carried out with or without energy recovery. With energy recovery, it forms the third of the three recovery processes in the waste hierarchy. Without energy recovery it is a form of disposal, like landfill (see above).

Energy can be recovered from waste either by direct waste incineration (typically mass burn incineration plants, taking unsorted waste) or by using waste as a fuel substitute (either directly or as a "refuse derived fuel"). Incineration is not as widely used in the UK as in some other countries. Around 8% of municipal waste is incinerated in energy from waste (EfW) plants in the UK compared to around 50% in Sweden and Denmark .

The technology to burn waste has developed significantly over the past 50 years and incinerators are now much cleaner than they used to be. The energy released from burning the rubbish is often used to generate electricity. Even greater benefits can be gained by using the extra heat to heat nearby housing or offices.

However, despite improvements in the operation of incinerators, there is strong public concern about health effects. And from a resource point of view, incineration may not be the best way to deal with our rubbish. Even if energy is obtained through the process, incinerating our rubbish may be a waste of valuable resources.

Alternative waste treatments

Anaerobic digestion

This is the process in which biodegradable waste is decomposed in the absence of oxygen to produce methane which can be collected and burnt as a fuel to produce electricity. Currently this method is under investigation in order to provide more alternatives for this fraction of the waste stream.

Mechanical biological treatment

This is a generic term for several processes which include MRF and composting. It is simply mechanical processes of drying and bulk reduction for household waste. Drying eases separation of recyclables. The material remaining is highly combustible. Two main systems operate to treat this materia

1. Mechanical biological treatment. Residual mixed waste is mechanically sorted into recyclable materials, refuse derived fuel (RDF) and an organic fraction. The organic fraction is treated and used as soil conditioner, the RDF goes for further treatment and then used for EfW eg gasification or pyrolysis. Some material is rejected and landfilled.

2. Biological mechanical treatment. The residual, mixed, unsorted waste is homogenised and treated by part composting and drying. Sorting and treatment follows, using mechanical processes so that recyclate, RDF and soil conditioner streams, as well as the rejected fraction of residual waste, are produced.

Energy from waste

Refuse derived fuel (RDF)

Refuse derived fuel is created from fractions of the waste stream with a high energy content; typically paper, plastics, textiles and wood etc.

Mixed waste is separated using screens and mechanical processes, to remove glass and metals for recycling, the biodegradable content and RDF.

RDF can be used for EfW, thermal treatment or in an existing industrial process. RDF can often be used in conjunction with other fuels in a process known as co-combustion, such as exists in cement kilns where worn tyres may be used.

Other energy from waste processes

There have recently been developments in new technologies for the disposal of waste, many of which are becoming increasingly viable options for the disposal of household waste

Gasification

Whilst traditionally using fossil fuels like coal, gasification has the capability to accept mixed fuels including waste. The fuel (biomass) is heated in anaerobic conditions producing a low energy gas containing hydrogen, oxygen and methane which can then be used to generate electricity. With new technology the resulting emissions give a favourable alternative to incineration.

Pyrolysis

This is an emerging technology similar to gasification, however in this process there is total absence of oxygen. Pyrolysis is used on carbon materials and refuse derived fuel (RDF). This produces gas, oil and char. Char is produced as a by product of this process and can be recovered for use as a fuel eg gasification or alternatively disposed of. Gas and oil can be processed and then combusted and used to generate electricity. Strict legislation is imposed on these processes due to their hazardous emissions such as heavy metals. These can be reduced by the fitting of flue-gas cleaning equipment.

Conclusion

top of page

Whilst techniques and legislation are constantly evolving to improve our waste management performance, so do the volumes of waste we produce. Information regarding the significance of this is to be found on our information sheet - "Recycling and beyond".

 

 

Updated May 2006

www.wasteonline.org.uk

www.wastewatch.org.uk